Tour to Buryatia. Buryatia tour.
WELCOME TO BURYATIA
THE HISTORY OF BURYATIA
PALEOLITHIC AGE
Stone age in Zabaikalye is the period of 800-400 thousand years ago when one
of the centers of inhabitance of ancient people was the territory stretching
from South-Siberian mountains in the north to the Tibet and plains of China in
the south. The representatives of this culture were ape-man whose remains had
been found in the cave of Chzhoukoudyan not far from Beijing. One of the camps
of Ashelsky epoch was found near the village Zasukhino in Zabaikalye. During the
Kazantsen interglacial age period (about 120-70 thousand ago) south Siberia was
inhabited by representatives of the next step in the evolution of Neanderthal
men. More than 20 camps of ancient men were discovered on the shores of the
Angara-river and Baikal Lake. Neanderthals hunted wooly rhinoceroses, bisons,
horses - the inhabitants of open steppe spaces. The climate in that period was
warm and humid sometimes chilly.
About 40 thousand years ago camps of Homo Sapiens appeared in Zabaykalye, their
culture got the name of late Paleolithic period. Its period coincided with
Karginsky inter glacial age period and the last freezing. Zabaykalye remained
free from ice in that time large herbivores animals had wandered in open spaces
of Zabaykalye, many of these species disappeared later as mammoths, woolly
rhinoceroses, bisons, noble and huge deer, horses, antelopes. Such fauna
attracted people who lived in large communities and hunted huge animals.
MIDDLE STONE AGE (OR MESOLITHIC AGE)
With the appearance of Homo sapience the material culture started to change.
Warming that started 12-14 thousand years ago created a background for current
weather conditions. Glaciers had disappeared and forests took their places.
Prevalence of cold steppes was changed by the domination of dark-coniferous
forests. Mammoths, wooly rhinoceroses and some others species of huge- hoofed
animals disappeared, but the number of deer, elks, roe, birds of duck and
black-cock breeds increased. Rivers and lakes became abundant in fish.
The settlements in Oshurkovo, Kunaley, Ust-Kyakhta and others found on the
territory of Zabaykalye date back to the Middle Stone Age. The majority of known
settlements from the period of 13-8 thousand years ago were located on the banks
of large rivers and their tributaries in places convenient for fishing, also
near watering place or on the way of seasonal migrations of animals. People
started using bones to make awls, polishings, harpoons, fishing hooks, needles,
bases for complex tools. Many bone needles of that time do not differ in size or
shape from the modern metal ones. The main invention of Paleolithic age -a bow
with arrows - became widely popular during the Middle Stone Age. The bow allowed
individual hunting in remote areas.
As people started using stone during the Mesolithic age in Zabaikalye,
cultures that use stone instruments were formed: Selenginsky, located on the
banks of the Selenga-river and Chikoysky, located on the eastern tributaries of
the Selenga.
During the Middle Stone Age a man tamed a dog, that became his true friend in
hunting. Ancient sculptures, engravings on bones depicting fish, snake or
mammoth appeared were found in this area.
The disappearance of large animals allowed people to divide into small mobile
groups. They mastered pen hunting and family societies had well adapted to
nature environment by this time. Settlements during the Middle Stone Age
contained only up to 3 dwellings. Small groups were more mobile in comparison to
large groups of top Paleolithic age. Smaller groups were able to move
constantly, following the animals. At that time the first traits of nomadic life
appeared. Later they became the ground of nomadic culture of people in Central
Asia.
THE NEOLITHIC AGE
The important phenomenon of the new age was the so-called "Neolithic
revolution". People turned from hunting, fishing and collecting to growing
cultivated plants and breeding domestic animals. More than 200 monuments of
Neolithic age were discovered on the shores of rivers and lakes in Buryatia.
They were large settlements with funeral complexes that appeared again in åðøû
period, drawings on the rocks usually depicting different hunting scenes or
taiga animals. Ceramic crockery with round or pointed bottom was also found. The
Neolithic camps were discovered on the shores of Yeravninsky Lakes, the Temnik,
the Kurba, the Ingoda, the Vitim rivers and other places. The greatest cemetery
of ancient hunters and fishermen was found on the Feofan Mountain in the Selenga
River delta. The Neolithic Age in Central Asia coincided with the period of
blossoming of civilization to the north of Equator where first cities were built
and grandiose pyramids were created in Egypt, while ancient people armed with
stone axes still wandered on the shores of Baikal Lake.
GREAT STEPPE. III CENTURY BC
Great steppe is a name that for Europeans of that time meant a vast territory
in the East, where some almost magic events took place and from which numerous
hordes of belligerent nomads came to the West. For Asian tribes this phrase
described a vital space, where Central Asia started, where powerful nomadic
states were founded and crushed, where wars for ruling this territory happened
and where the ideas of the new world empire, new Eurasia were born.
The central part of the Great Steppe was Mongolia. Nomadic empires and a great
number of nomadic states (ulusy) were born here. They became kaganats, ulusy and
hordes (kingdoms) in different parts of Eurasia. All steppe tribes of Mongolia,
including those who went far away to taiga, and those who came back (among them
western-buryat and eastern-buryat tribes) were a part of the great empires of
the past.
Since the Hunnu times the great nomadic empires that appeared in Mongolia used
to spread far from it. Mongolia was the centre of Syanby, Zhunzhuan Kaganat,
Tyurksky Kaganat, Uygur Khanstvo (Kingdom), Kirghiz Kaganat. Before these
empires were established, local nomadic tribes were fighting between each other
to rule the region. The borders of the empires included in different times -
Manchuria, North and South Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan and the taiga zone with
scarce population.
Many agricultural and nomadic tribes left for other lands. Some of them stayed
there forever, the others came back renewed. These empires were surrounded in
South, West and East by nomadic and half-nomadic states or states with nomadic
past (such as U sun, Ukhuan, Toba, Tuyuykhun, Bokhay, Tibet, Si Sya and others).
They became nomadic oases in agricultural civilization. For example, a powerful
nomadic state of Toba, that has left Mongolia for the South, occupied the whole
Northern China later in the 4-6th centuries. Some nomadic states reached Western
Europe. Such empires as Northern Khunnu (Gunny) and Zhuanzhu waged devastating
wars in Iran, Northern Galla, East Roman Empire, having them pay great annual
contributions. The others founded kaganat and fought with Franks and Byzantium
Empire.
Long marches of nomads from Mongolia to China, Primorye (from the Far East to
Baikal) and Europe were accompanied by the foundation of new states along their
way. Thus, long before the military campaigns of Chingis-Khan and his commanders
there had been grounds for the Great Empire of nomads, which appeared as a
result of long lasting wars.
During the period of Chingisids (Chingis descendants) the Great Steppe spread to
the enormous sizes. The nomadic empires of Mongolia formed a ”boiling pot” where
different states and religion branches mixed and melted into one. World
religions that spread fast in mobile nomadic environment, coexisted with
traditional beliefs and mysterious ("trusting”) religion of Great Steppe -
tengrianstvo (shamanism. From ‘tengeri’ - sky). Buddhism prevailing in Mongolia
and Eastern Buryatia had originated from China, Central Asia, Tibet. It
incorporated and transformed a great variety of local cults, rituals, beliefs
and legends and became the second uniting basis in spiritual sphere together
with the ideas of Empire state.
Some known differences in the economic and cultural development of peoples
inhabiting Great Steppe and its outskirts caused a high level of their mutual
dependence, regional division of labour, intensive exchange, caravan trade and
resulted in creation of basis for civilized development.
The zone of South-Siberian Mountains including the Altay, the Sayany and
Zabaikalye ranges played a special role during several millennia in the history
of Great Steppe.
On one hand these mountainous valleys were covered with Siberian taiga and
central-asian steppes. Cultures of taiga hunters and steppe nomadic
cattle-breeders developed here.
On the northern slopes of the Western Sayany, in Minusinsk hollow, in the age of
Bronze and early Iron there was the center of land-farming and metal-processing
that was the most northern in Asia. Later it became the basis of bright culture
of Dynlyn in the Seythian era, which regenerated later in the state of Yenissey
Kirghizes and existed till the Mongolian invasion.
On the other hand, there was a bridge across the Altay passes, which connected
two parts of the steppe zone of Eurasia and through which since the time of
Khunnu, tribes of nomads went to the west because of drought or fled more
powerful neighbors- Zhuzhany- avars, the Oguzy-torks, the Karluks, the
Kimaki-Kipchaks and many others including Dzhungar- Kalmyks
During the whole history of nomadic world of great Steppe these stepped
mountainous valleys often used to be the shelter of different tribes and people
which by virtue of political or nature-climatic reasons had to leave their
pastures and, using the Sayano- Altay and Zabaikalye as natural saving refuge,
collected forces for a new rise.
Due to these reasons there is much in common in the history of Zabaikalye and
the Sayano-Altay: destinies of many people were bound together, new ethnoses
were born, achievements of different cultures were incorporated. As a result,
Great Steppe became a cradle of new Eurasian civilization.
At present, many peoples who came from Great Steppe live on the territories of
several states. Mongolia and Buryatia, which have been a unified geopolitical
space for many centuries, now develop as modern states. They not only keep
memories about the past and also actively use achievements of European and Asian
civilizations. Buryatia still carries out the mission of a bridge connecting
East and West.
The conquests of the Mongols
Great Empire of Mongols was founded as the union of Mongol and other
neighboring tribes and as a result of wars which were conducted by the Mongols
against the tribes of Central Asia, Zabaykalye, China and against many other
people and states. For many centuries China pursued the policy of setting
different tribes on each other, bringing some tribes closer, fighting against
the others, and declaring wars on those who were considered a threat. This way
those tribes were kept from unification.
Temuchzhin (future Chingis Khan) was able to use these intrigues to unite Mongol
tribes. The history of creating the Empire was described in several Mongol
chronicles and in “Innermost legends” as well. Just in that time the word
“mongol” appeared, meaning the tribes faithful to Chingis-Khan. Wars began in
1190s when Mongol tribes lead by Van-Khan, Temuchzhin and his sworn brother
Dzhamukha started a military campaign against the Merkits to release
Temuchzhin’s wife and nurse from the captivity. Before that, skirmishes of the
Mongols and the Karaits against merkits had been quite regular because of the
territory, but they didn’t lead to a great war.
During a 5 year-old war Temuchzhin crushed the Merkits and was given a title of
Chingis-Khan. Then he took over a large tribe of Naymans. In 1207 his elder son
Dzhuchi and a “thousander” (a leader of thousand soldiers) Bukha were sent to
conquer “wood tribes”, that were living on the territory of present
North-Western Mongolia, Tuva, the South of Krasnoyarsky region - the Oyrats, the
Uryankhats, the Yenisey Kirghizes-ancestors of the Khakases and other small
tribes, including the ancestors of the western Buryats. After Chingis-Khan had
conquered all tribes inhabiting the territory of present Mongolia, he sent his
main forces to Chinese lands and lands of Khori-tumats. But he wasn’t able to
conquer the Khori-Tumats at once. However the whole Zabaikalye was included into
the Mongolian State –Khamag Mongol Uls. The tribes living in the country of
“Bargudzin-tokum” joined this state voluntarily.
Military campaigns to Tangut Kingdom brought rich prey and considerably
strengthened the economy of Mongolian state. Raids to the Nothern and Southern
China lasted more than ten years. The Mongols had taken great amounts of Chinese
treasures. The capital of the Mongols, Karakorum -“nomadic Rome” founded by a
son and a heir of Chingis-Khan, Udege-Khan became the richest capital in Asia.
Thousands of slaves were working there and many scientists, craftsmen and
builders came to live there.
Campaigns to Central Asia followed later. The Mongols established trade with
South China and Central Asia, but Khores Khorezmshakh prevented them by
plundering their caravans. The 200 thousand army of the Mongols crushed down
Khoresm. Later the “Great Silk Way” was created along the paths of Mongol
caravans and their armies.
Then the Mongols started their conquest of Korea and other countries of
South-Eastern Asia. Having conquered Russia, Caucasus and some European
countries, the Empire controlled a vast territory stretching from the Pacific
Ocean and the Yellow Sea in the east to the Black Sea and the Balkan in the
west. The only country the Mongols couldn’t conquer was Japan, because of the
storm that destroyed their fleet during the campaign.
The Mongols created the army that was the most powerful and the most disciplined
in the world. They used the experience of nomadic life to march thousands of
kilometers from their homeland. They used the most advanced tactical decisions
and strategies of those times. For example, they were able to convince the
enemies that they had a great number of warriors by putting straw figures on
horses (each soldier had at least 5 horses). More than a million of horses were
used in the seige of Khoresm. Many of these innovations were introduced by
Chingis-Khan. Besides, the Mongols had a special group of spies - “Dzhiyurt”,
that investigated pastures, studied language and life of the potential enemy.
There are two hypotheses that explain the beginning of Mongol empire expansion:
- It was a result of Chingis-Khan’s personal ambitions for the world
domination. But the circumstances themselves demanded the expansion of
Mongolian State, and only in wars the state and the Army could become
stronger.
- The second hypothesis suggests that it was the answer to aggression of
neighboring tribes, first the Merkits and then China. Moreover, peace
suggested by the Mongols was declined, so the only way to resist these
threats was to create of a powerful state. Khanstva (kingdoms) were created
on the whole territory of the Empire. They became strong points through
which the governing of the Empire was conducted and due to them the
Mongolian Empire existed more than 300 years.
Short periods of the Mongol invasions were followed by lasting peaceful
periods when countries that became a part of the Mongol world could restore
cities that had been destroyed and explore innovations brought by the Mongols.
The Mongol-Tatar Yoke
In 2000, there was a conference of archeologists in Moscow who studied the
consequences of Baty-Khan invasion to Russia. The facts given by researches
testified that there were no catastrophic changes in Russian culture as a result
of Mongol arrival. The archeological excavations showed that the first
astronomical devices appeared in Povolzhye with the Mongol arrival. The
blossoming of economy and culture took place in all parts of Mongol world.
Everywhere there were active city-buildings. The whole Golden Horde was a city.
Archeologists founded more than 100 cities and settlements built during the
ruling of the Mongols. The cities were built without any fortifications that
indirectly prove the fact that there was no danger of wars in the Empire. The
Mongols brought new technologies of metal processing, including molding of crude
iron. The monetary circulator increased, the issue of paper money began in Yuan
China, and paper money was so widely circulated that it surprised Marko Polo, a
merchant from Venice. He called one chapter in his book “How great Khan spends
pieces of paper instead of coins”. In the vast state of the Mongols the powerful
government cruelly punished revolts and internal conflicts. Safety and justice
were supported through law and order. Abul-Gazi (1605-1664) wrote: “all places
between Iran and Turan (Central Asia) were so peaceful that a man going from the
East to the West with a golden plate on his head could not be attacked by
anybody”.
The Mongols acted as the carries of an idea of Eurasiasm, their purpose was to
connect West and East, nomadic and settled worlds. But this connection was often
violent. Their states were stretching along the axis – “the steppe corridor",
serving as a road to the west for nomads during many centuries. The Mongols not
only had united the whole nomadic world of Great Steppe, with its cultural
achievements and a style of life, but they went further. They strived to destroy
isolation, narrow-mindedness, religious intolerance and tried not only to create
the open Eurasian space but a new planetary outlook. But the world didn`t
understand the plans of great Mongols and was not ready to accept their ideas.
In that time the Mongols were thought of as barbarians and savages, a lot of
attention was paid to destructive wars while their creative activities were
ignored.
This order, economic prosperity and new philosophy that wasn’t attached to one
central idea, resulted in intellectual explosion in the whole Empire. New types
of literature and art appeared and thrived in China. New works on mathematics,
agriculture, and new engineering projects started to appear. The same thing was
happening in Iran: fast development of literature and miniature painting. In the
cities new areas for scientists were built. The Mongols supported scientific
research (they built observatories where scientists of different nations
worked). Talented people of different origins and religions were included in
governing the state; however the main control stayed with Mongols. The purpose
of the Mongols was exactly expressed by the Confucianist scientist, a tyurk by
birth, Bukhum, who was close to the imperial court: ”To have many able people
(capable to govern the state), it is necessary to establish schools everywhere
as in ancient times … And to order, to start learning the relations between
people…One must know how to behave himself in the society, to manage his family,
his country…No matter how high of a ranks a Mongol is and no matter how high in
his position a Sezhen is (natives of Central Asia and Europe), those who haven`t
reached success in studying, should learn till they are ready for administrative
work”.
The top of Yuan aristocracy included the Kidans, the Uigurs, the Kynchaks, other
representatives of different nations, and the natives from Bargudzhin-Tokum. A
Venice merchant Marko Polo mentioned a native from the Khory-tribe among the
people close to Khubilay-Khan, Rashid-ad-din in his turn named famous Barguts.
The Mongol Empire reached its peak during the reign of Khubilay-Khan, a grandson
of Chingis-Khan.
Russia was submitting to the Mongol Empire for more than 200 years.
First, nomadic Mongols were not interested in Russian forests and rather poor
Russian princedoms. The reason for their attacks on Russia was the actions of
Russian princes who killed Mongol ambassadors when they came to Russia demanding
the extradition of Polovetsk leaders.
They refused to submit to the Great Khan and fled to the Northwest. Thus the
Mongols declared a war. In the battle near the Kalka-river in 1223, the Mongol
army of 20-thousand defeated the 80-thousand Russian and Polovetsk Armies. Next
time the Mongols came to Russia in 1237, lead by the grandson of Chingis-Khan -
Baty-Khan. Mamai-Khan, Tokhtamysh-Khan and others lead military campaigns
against Russia, too. But the relations between Russian princes and Mongol Khans
were not always hostile. The Mongols allowed the Russians to keep their troops,
moreover, the Russians adopted the tactics of war and armaments from the Mongol
cavalry. It is known that Baty-Khan made an alliance with Alexander Nevsky who
became a sworn brother of his son Sartak. This alliance was both military and
political. Its goal was a fight against expansion from the West, against
Livonian Knights. The Mongol cavalry helped the Russians to stop Knights` attack
on Pskov and Novgorod. Those Mongol Khans who ruled in the area near the Low (Nizhnya)
Volga stopped all intrusions of Asian nomads, supporters of Chinese ongols or
the dynasty of Yuan. The Russian princes asked the Mongols for help which led to
the foundation of the Great Russian Empire. The common silver rouble was
introduced in the economy, the church became independent from the state.
Language, culture, art and clothes were enriched with the elements of the
Eastern culture.
The laws of the Mongols united isolated princedoms. The Moscow princedom
collected taxes, “yasy”, which then was paid to Golden Horde. The Mongols
founded mail, which used 400 thousand horses. New roads were built and
post-stations turned into cities. Two centuries in the history of Russia between
Kiev Russia and Moscow Russia became the period that changed the image of
Russian civilization and its further geopolitical destiny. In the 17th century,
Russian Empire began to explore the spaces to the East, following the Mongol
Empire and created a new Eurasian civilization with the boarders that reached
further to the North in comparison the Mongol Empire. For a while the territory
of Mongolia was included into the Russian Empire.
Religion in the Mongol Empire
The Chingisids (descendants of Chingis-Khan) treated all religions with
respect. Moreover, they not only conducted the policy of freedom in
religions, but also provided financial support for building Orthodox cathedrals
and Muslim mosques, though official religion in that time was Buddhism. The
major part of Mongol-speaking people in Mongolia were Christians (of Nestrorian
branch), that played a great role in rapprochement of two great ethnoses:
tyrk-mongolian and Russian. The main postulates of Christianity were close and
clear to nomads, who really liked the respectable attitude of the Nestorians to
local traditional beliefs. Later Mongols-Nestorians played an important role in
the history of relations between Golden Horde and Russia.
Chingis-Khan, knowing the history and geography of the Great Steppe,
purposefully weakened those regions that could have potential opposition. These
lands included his native Bargudzhin-Tokum and also the area of Kyrghyz
(medieval Khakasiya) with governors of ancient Kyrghyz family. Aristocracy was
strong there with influential local traditions. That`s why the most notable and
strong families were resettled to Manzhuria and Northern China. Voluntary
migration was forbidden.
Mongolian towns were also built in Zabaikalye. New aristocracy of the
Empire needed prestigious things including jewelry and furs, so new colonies
appeared in the whole wood zone of tradesmen, often Muslims. Archeologists found
trading stations nearly everywhere were the majority of the population was
concentrated: the Unginsk trading station, the Barguzin trading station and the
Dzhida one on the Temnik-river. In all places we can find things that are
typical for Central Asian culture: lamps, glass from Bukhara oasis, ceramics
decorated with ornaments that are not specific for local traditions. In these
centers merchants bought and traded furs that were coming from the whole eastern
Siberia, then they sold them with great profits in China and Central Asia, where
rich customers inclined to luxury and bliss lived. Trade ways called “Khan`s
high road” provided trade between East and West.
A great number of historical works and works of art are devoted to the era of
Chingisids. The one-sided point of view on the role of the Mongols in the
history of mankind that has been stated before, is in the process of
re-evaluation now. A number of scientists began this work. A great contribution
was made by Leo Gumilev who having studied the history of great empires, put
forward the idea of “passionarity”. In Buryatia this theme was revealed in a new
way in the novel “Severe age”(Zhestokiy Vek) written by Isai Kalashnikov. Boris
Khalbaev published the book “Chingis-Khan –a genius”, in which he represents his
point of view on the state of the Mongols. Special attention is paid to their
creative activities. Jean Pole Rue named this period the epoch of friendship and
agreement between people - “Golden Age”, “An Ideal state”, “Mongol sphere”.
The decline of Mongol Empire finished the era of great nomadic empires of
Central Asia. The decline occurred in the 14th century. After overthrow of
the Mongolian dynasty Yuan (1368) in China the periods of alliances were
followed by the periods of severe civil strife in Mongolian history. More than a
million of Mongols who had formerly subdued China and became its citizens were
destroyed by new rulers or turned into slaves. An ancient Chinese proverb “The
one who will conquer China will become a Chinese himself with time” came true.
At the end of the 13th century Great Horde divided into White and Blue. The
longest centralization was during the ruling of Dayan-Khan (1479-1543). Civil
strife led to the isolation of many Mongolian tribes, the Kalmyks left Mongolia
and founded Kalmytskoye Khanstvo (Kingdom) in Povolzhiye and Prikaspy and later
became the vassal of Russia. The Oyrats staying in Mongolia had founded the
Dzhungar Khanstvo in 1630, which had conquered the major part of South Siberia
but later was destroyed. In 1691 all Mongolian Kingdoms declared themselves
nationals of Manchzhur-Chinese dynasty-Qin. Zabaikalye was also included into
the sphere of Manchzhur influence. After Russians came here, a vitrual border
between the cultures of West and East was marked at the border between Russia
and Mongolia (the latter was a part of China at that time), it has been existing
till present time and modern Buryatia has been a buffer territory where these
cultures mix and coexist.
Tea road (Chainy put`)
The history of Tea road is the history of the development of diplomatic,
trade and cultural relations between people of Eurasia in Middle Ages. The
development of these relations was accompanied by the development of roads,
which in different times where the ways of tribes’ migration, military
expeditions, diplomatic and religious missions and trade.
The first in a history of Eurasia nephrite trade way was established in the
Stone Age and in the era of great nomadic civilizations in Central Asia, all
main ways connecting East and West appeared. During the ruling of Han' and
Khunnu states Great Silk road was created and new ways appeared in the 16-19th
centuries later became a Great tea road.
Tea trade
The history of tea trade is closely connected with the history of Russian -
Chinese relations in the 14-19th centuries.
The first information about Russia and Russians appeared in China during
governing of the Yuan Mongolian dynasty, when China was the colony of Mongolia.
“A guarding Russian regiment” that was famous for its loyalty to Khan, was
formed near Beijing from captured Russian soldier. In 1332 its number was
several thousand people, it was headed by a famous general- Boyan. In 1368 after
overthrow of the Yuan dynasty, the Russian regiment probably left for the West
with Mongols. After that there was no information about the Russians in Chinese
chronicles in the period of the Min dynasty, which replaced the Mongols.
Russian chronicles of the 14th century mentioned China as the state subdued
by the Mongols. The relations of Russia with eastern countries became regulated
only after ousting the Mongols from its territory. In 1472 Afanasy Nikitin
brought the information about the “Khatai” country and about possible ways of
entering there from India by land.
The 16th century became a new stage in the history of Russian-Chinese
relations when Europe and Russia became interested in China. Seaway, established
earlier by Marko Polo, was very long and geographic knowledge about China and
neighboring countries and about land road from Europe to China was rather poor.
Therefore, Europeans began to look for a shorter and less dangerous seaway or
land way to China across Russia. The first people moving to the East, and
further from Siberia to the Pacific ocean, were Russian soldiers, and first of
all the Cossacks - pathfinders who were collecting information about this
country. During the reign of Vasily Shuisky in 1608, Volynsky governor sent
ambassadors from Tomsk to Altyn-Khan, the latter was the governor of the
northern Mongolia and Dzungaria. However the embassy did not reach the place of
destination because of a war between Altyn-Khan and Kalmyks. In 1616, the new
embassy headed by ataman Vasily Tyumenets was sent again. The ataman reached
nomad camp of Altyn-Khan, established friendly relations with him, found out
many new things, but did not move further and returned to Moscow. In 1619, a
group of Cossacks headed by Ivan Petlyn was sent to Beijing. Petlyn brought
detailed information about a way to China, “The Drawing of Chinese State” and
the letter from the emperor of the Min dynasty.
From the middle of the 16th century, English “Moscow company” received a
right from King Ivan IV for a free trade with Russia. It began to search for new
land roads to the East and, simultaneously, relying on the northern Russian
ports in the White sea, tried to find northeast road, across the Atlantic and
the Indian oceans, that were controlled by Denmark and Spain. After Siberia
joined Russia, Englishmen tried to get a sanction to find a road to India and
China by Siberian rivers from Russian government, however the Russian government
rejected the project of English merchants.
During the reign of Alexey Mihailovich, trips of Russian diplomats to China
were welcomed by Chinese authorities of the Min dynasty, but after its overthrow
this attitude changed. The young aggressive Qin State spread its expansion to
various directions - against Mongols, Oyrats, Koreans. After a significant part
of Primoriye joined Russia, it tried to supersede Russia from Amur by sending
Manzhurian troops there.
Expansion of Russian borders in Zabaikalye and Priamurye alarmed Chinese
politicians for two reasons. It broke their foreign doctrine which suggested the
impossibility of neighbouring with a strong state –Russia. On the other hand, it
prevented China from conquering Mongolian khans. The imperial courtyard of China
tried to treat Russia as its vassal, Russia tried to establish a good-neighbourly
relations and trade. In 1663, the government of Russia sent an embassy on behalf
of the Russian Tsar headed by an experienced diplomat Nikolay Gavrilovich
Spafariy to China. The mission was unsuccessful, but trip of Spafariy became of
great importance. It enriched science and knowledge about the Qin empire,
enabled further development of methods and directions of Russian foreign policy
towards China.
First trade caravans
One of the goals of the mission was to develop trade relations, and Chinese
authorities did not interfere with that. In 1666, the first trading caravan
headed by boyar son Ivan Per`yev and Bukhara merchant Sectula Ablyn was sent
from Moscow to China. Bukhara merchants frequently carried out a role of
intermediaries in trade relations between Russia and countries of the East.
Despite of losses and big trade costs, the result of the trade of Ablyn in China
was rather favorable for Russian treasury. Trade profit in Beijng was almost 100
%. Chinese goods brought in Russia gave a profit of more than 300 %. It brought
a lot of interest to trade with China in the governmental and trading circles of
Russia. At the same time there were serious difficulties on its way of the
development – distance of the road across Kalmyk and Mongolian lands, robberies
of nomads in caravans.
Settlements in Siberia and in Zabaikalye gave protection to the caravans, and at
the same time they were shopping centers. Irkutsk ostrog, Udinsky ostrog (later
Verhneudinsk, nowadays Ulan-Ude- the capital of Buryatia) and Nerchensky ostrog
(nowadays Nerchinsk of Chita oblast) were of great value. The first Russian
trading caravans began to pass through Udinsky ostrog since 1680. After
“Nerchensky treaty” about free trade between Russia and China was signed by the
ambassador of Russia Fiodor Alekseevich Golovyn in 1689, Udinsky ostrog began to
guard the valley of the Uda river from nomads raids where the main road to
Nerchinsky region ran.At the end of the17th century and at the beginning of
the18th century, this road ran along Angara, Baikal, Selenga up to Verkhneudinsk
town, then – along Uda up to Eravninsky lakes, and from there - along the
Chitinka river and the Shilka river to Nerchinsk town which became the main
centre of trade with China.
Trading and diplomatic relations of Russia with China were based on this road
for a long time. Besides this road, there was a road through Verkhneudinsk on
the Selenga river to Mongolia, that ran all the way to Urga (nowadays Ulan Bator
- the capital of Mongolia). On these two roads the big state caravans, military
caravans and also merchants who conducted private trade moved. Trading in
Nerchinsk was interrupted because of frequent contradictions with local people,
moreover it was confronted by Manzhurian authorities. In regards to this in
1719, the embassy headed by the minister Capitan Lev Ismailov was sent to Beijng.
His secretary was Lorence Lang, who at the end of trip got interesting
information on a history of Russian–Chinese relations and Siberia and also wrote
“Description of Chinese state”. New, more detailed map of the road was also
made. Ismailov was warmly received in Beijng, had 12 audiences with the emperor,
brought gifts, but, except for the sanction to leave Lang as a trading agent and
renewal of trade, achieved nothing.The Russian government was not satisfied with
this situation. In 1727, Ekaterina I sent the ambassador Savva
Vladislavich-Raguzinsky to China. After long negotiations on the Bura river, he
signed a new treaty with China, its ratification was accomplished in 1728 on the
Kyakhta River. Kyakhta contract defined the border between the states. It also
resulted in the construction of a town called Troitskosavsk. Next to it a large
trading village Kyakhta and the Chinese Trade City of Maimachen were built.
Since that time Kyakhta became the main centre of Russian - Chinese trade. The
city of Maimachen existed till the 20th century, and then it was demolished.
Nowadays there are the Russian - Mongol border and cities of Altan-Bulak
(Mongolia) and Kyakhta (Russia) on this place. After the construction of Kyakhta,
Verkhneudinsk remained the main trading centre. Verkhneudinsk became one of the
main points of wholesale trade of Chinese goods. Trade taxes were collected
there, all trade with China and Mongolia was supervised. The city became a
shopping center of all the Western Zabaikalye.
Caravans
The state caravans sent to China were rather complicated. The caravan was
headed by the trusted merchant. He was in charge of a governmental commissioner,
four tax-collectors, guard officer with military protection that consisted of
100 Cossacks. Total number of people in a state caravan was around 200 people.
Caravans were organized once in three years, their trip in one direction took
one year. Sale of Russian goods and purchase of Chinese goods took several
months.
The state monopoly on the trade with China existed more than 60 years, but did
not give a big profit. As a result, Ekaterina II in 1762, banned state caravans
to China and made trade in Kyakhta free for merchants. It changed Russian -
Chinese trade. At that time many Siberian merchants were well known and
commended by the government. At the same time, state caravans contributed to
constant contacts between the governments of Russia and China.
The basic goods transported from Russia to China were: furs, leather, textiles,
jersey, hemp, groceries, the Tyumen carpets, honey, butter, frozen fish (sterlet,
lake white-fish), stearine candles, soap, iron goods, hardware goods and others.
Gold, silver, pearls, jewels, expensive silk fabrics and cotton fabrics, food
and other goods were imported from China. China became a large world importer of
tea, and Chinese merchants were interested in Russian market for this product.
In Russia only Siberian and people living by the Caspian Sea drank tea. But
gradually tea became the most popular drink and replaced traditional kvass in
Russia, becoming the main trading subject between Russia and China. Because of
tea this trading way was called “The Great Tea Road”, Kyakhta used to be called
“Russian Tea Capital”. Kyakhta was the only “City of Millionaires” all over the
world. In some years the trade turnover reached 30 million roubles.
The Russian government, for which tea trade was rather profitable, tried to
support a high level of tea import and encouraged re-export of Chinese tea to
Western Europe. In the middle of the 19th century, about 95 % of Russian import
from China was tea. Chinese interest in Russian market increased after England
began to develop tea plantations in India and Ceylon. The trade sea road was
laid from Guangzhou to Odessa, A Petersburg contract that led to a considerable
increase in trade was signed. Through Russia tea and other Chinese goods entered
not only towns of Siberia and Russia, but countries of the Near East and Western
Europe. Kyakhta became the centre of sale of furs coming from Siberia, Kamchatka,
Alaska and from Norway, Canada, and the US.
The Russian-American company of Grigory Shelekhov influenced Russian trade very
much. It joined the Irkutsk commercial company headed by merchant Yel`nikov. The
company was founded in 1798 and received the lands on the northeast coast of
America up to the Bering strait, and also Kuril, Aleutian and other islands of
the Pacific Ocean from the Russian government. The company was granted a
permission to open new lands, to found settlements there and to conduct
unlimited trading. The Russian- American Company became the main supplier of
furs to Kyakhta. It was a pioneer of distributing Chinese goods to the northern
part of the American continent.
The geography of the Tea road is very extensive. The road had a lot of overland
roads, waterways, and branched into different Russian provinces. Several trade
fairs opened along the way. 20 of them with a big trade turnover, 5-with average
turnover and most of the fairs were small ones, 96 in total. The most famous
fairs were the ones in Kyakhta, Verkhneudinsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Nerchinsk,
Mangazeisk, Tarsk, Surgut, Turukhansk, Irbitsk, Nizhniy Novgorod, Moscow. Total
length of the road was 9-10 thousand kilometers.
Caravans from Russia to China and back moved through the following cities:
Moscow, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, Nizhni
Novgorod, Irbit, Solikamsk, Ekaterinburg, Verkhoturiye, Turinsk, Tyumen, Tobolsk,
Tomsk, Omsk, Ishim, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kansk, Yeniseisk, Ilimsk,
Nizhneudinsk, Irkutsk, Verkhneudinsk, Selenginsk, Kyakhta, Saishana, Urga,
Ern-Khoto, Kalgan, Beijng and other cities and settlements. On the same route
caravans moved from Beijng to Moscow. The Russian merchant trading station,
which played an important role in the development of trade, worked in Beijng.
There were land roads near Baikal across the Khamar-Daban range (Uduginsky,
Ivanovsky, Khamar-Dabansky, Igumnovsky pathes, Krugobaikalsky road) and also
waterways across Baikal and on the Selenga. Villages Kabansk, Mysovaya (nowadays
Babushkin) were built there.
During the 19th century Moscow remained the main distribution centre in European
part of Russia though not the only one. Tea was delivered to the capital of the
country - Saint-Petersburg from Moscow. Up to the middle of the 19th century
there was one secret tea shop in St. Petersburg while in Moscow in 1647 there
were more than 100 tea shops and more than 300 tea cafes.
The tea road became one of the greatest trade roads connecting different lands
and civilizations. Alongside with such roads as nephrite, silk, salt, cinnamon,
tin, wine, slave, it had a great value in the history of human development and
establishment of trade and economic, diplomatic and cultural relations between
people. This road was the second based on the amount of trade after the Great
Silk Road. The Tea Road existed more than 200 years and influenced social,
economic and cultural development of Russia, Mongolia and China. Significant
amounts of financial resources of the state treasury and merchants were
contributed to the construction of roads and towns, to education and culture, to
construction of churches and to the development of the new lands. Tea trade
along this road continued till the end of the 19th century. Construction of the
Suez Canal reduced the price of tea delivery to Europe. The beginning of tea
production in India and on Ceylon the Tea road had caused the Tea Road to
gradually lose its value, but it didn’t disappear. At present, many parts of the
road are transformed into railways and automobile highways and became a part of
a common transport network, connecting Asia and Europe. On the Tea Road the
trade exchange between Russia, Mongolia and China is still going on. The history
of the Tea Road is a foundation for the development of cultural tourism and
creation of transcontinental international tourist route, the largest in the
world.
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